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volume 40, issue 8, oct. 2011
1. title: 30 years after bayh�dole: reassessing academic entrepreneurship
authors: rosa grimaldi, martin kenney, donald s. siegel, mike wright
abstract: on the 30th anniversary of enactment of the bayh�dole act in the u.s., we consider the rationale for academic entrepreneurship and describe the evolving role of universities in the commercialization of research. we also discuss and appraise the effects of legislative reform in several oecd countries relating to academic entrepreneurship. the article synthesizes papers from the special section and outlines an agenda for additional research on various aspects of academic entrepreneurship in terms of system, university and individual levels. we also consider measurement and methodological issues that must be addressed in additional research.
2. title: the bayh-dole act and scientist entrepreneurship
authors: t. taylor aldridge, david audretsch
abstract: much of the literature examining the impact of the bayh-dole act has been based on the impact on patenting and licensing activities emanating from offices of technology transfer. studies based on data generated by offices of technology transfer, suggest a paucity of entrepreneurial activity from university scientists in the form on new startups. there are, however, compelling reasons to suspect that the tto generated data may not measure all, or even most of scientist entrepreneurship. rather than relying on measures of scientist entrepreneurship reported by the tto and compiled by autm, this study instead develops alternative measures based on the commercialization activities reported by scientists. in particular, the purpose of this paper is to provide a measure of scientist entrepreneurship and identify which factors are conducive to scientist entrepreneurship and which factors inhibit scientist entrepreneurship. this enables us to compare how scientist entrepreneurship differs from that which has been established in the literature for the more general population. we do this by developing a new database measuring the propensity of scientists funded by grants from the national cancer institute (nci) to commercialize their research as well as the mode of commercialization. we then subject this new university scientist-based data set to empirical scrutiny to ascertain which factors influence both the propensity for scientists to become an entrepreneur. the results suggest that scientist entrepreneurship may be considerably more robust than has generally been indicated in studies based on tto data.
3. title: changes to university ipr regulations in europe and the impact on academic patenting
authors: aldo geuna, federica rossi
abstract: this article develops a general framework to describe the changes in university ipr regulations in europe and their effects on the patenting activities of universities and on knowledge transfer processes. understanding the effects of changes in ipr regulations on academic patenting is a complex issue, and parallels with the us case can be misleading. first, despite the general trend towards institutional ownership, university ipr regulations in europe remain extremely differentiated and there is no one-to-one mapping to the us system. second, it is difficult to disentangle the quantitative and qualitative effects of changes in ipr ownership regulations on academic patenting activities from the effects of concurrent transformations in the institutional, cultural and organizational landscape surrounding academic knowledge transfer. the article proposes a review and typological classification of national university ipr ownership systems on the basis of their development since 2000, and uses it to analyze the aggregate dynamics of academic patent ownership in several european countries. the analysis of patterns of ownership of academic patents shows that there has been a general increase in university patenting since 1990, with a significant slowdown (and even reduction in some countries) after early 2000s accompanied by a switch in academic patents ownership in favor of university ownership though preserving the european specificity of high company ownership of academic invented patents.
4. title: has the bayh-dole act compromised basic research?
authors: jerry g. thursby, marie c. thursby
abstract: we examine three hypotheses regarding the effects of the bayh-dole act on research effort of faculty. the first hypothesis we call the status quo hypothesis and it asserts that there has been no effect on research profiles. the second hypothesis, which we call the negative hypothesis, asserts that faculty have been diverted from their traditional role in basic research toward research with more commercial potential. our final hypothesis is derived from prior theoretical work that suggests that both basic and applied research is greater when faculty can benefit from commercialization of their research effort; we refer to this as the positive hypothesis. the data we examine are the research and invention disclosure of faculty at 8 us universities over the period 1983�1999. using a citation based measure of basic research publications we relate basic research effort to invention disclosures. our findings are clear in that they do not show any support for the negative hypothesis and they show substantially greater support for the positive hypothesis than for the status quo hypothesis.
5. title: the impact of entrepreneurial capacity, experience and organizational support on academic entrepreneurship
authors: bart clarysse, valentina tartari, ammon salter
abstract: although sources and determinants of academic entrepreneurship have begun to command the attention of policy-makers and researchers, there remain many unanswered questions about how individual and social factors shape the decisions of academics to engage in entrepreneurial activities. using a large-scale panel of academics from a variety of uk universities from 2001 to 2009, this paper examines how an academics� level of entrepreneurial capacity in terms of opportunity recognition capacity, and their prior entrepreneurial experience shape the likelihood of them being involved in starting up a new venture. in addition, we explore what role university technology transfer offices (ttos) play in stimulating venture creation. the results show that individual-level attributes and experience are the most important predictors of academic entrepreneurship. we also find that the social environment surrounding the academic also plays an influential role, but its role is much less pronounced than individual-level factors. finally, we show that the activities of the tto play only a marginal, indirect role, in driving academics to start new ventures. we explore the implications of this analysis for policy and organizational design for academic entrepreneurship.
6. title: public science and public innovation: assessing the relationship between patenting at u.s. national laboratories and the bayh-dole act
authors: albert n. link, donald s. siegel, david d. van fleet
abstract: most studies of the effects of the bayh-dole act have focused on universities. in contrast, we analyze patenting activity at two prominent national laboratories, sandia national laboratories and the national institute of standards and technology before and after the enactment of this legislation and the stevenson-wydler act. it appears as though the enactment of bayh-dole and the stevenson-wydler act were not sufficient to induce an increase in patenting at these labs. however, the establishment of financial incentive systems, embodied in passage of the federal technology transfer act, as well as the allocation of internal resources to support technology transfer, stimulated an increase in such activity.
7. title: does inventor ownership encourage university research-derived entrepreneurship? a six university comparison
authors: martin kenney, donald patton
abstract: this paper examines whether university ownership of inventions made by its personnel best serves the widely held social goals of encouraging technology commercialization and entrepreneurship. using a hand-collected census of technology-based university spin-offs from six universities, one of which is the university of waterloo and the only inventor ownership university in north america, we compare the number and type of spin-offs produced by these universities. we find suggestive evidence that inventor ownership universities can be more efficient in generating spin-offs on both per faculty and per r&d dollar expended perspective. we find that the field of computer sciences and electrical engineering generates a greater number of spin-offs than do our other two categories � the biomedical sciences, and the field of engineering and the physical sciences. in general, our results demonstrate that inventor ownership can be extremely productive of spin-offs. from these results, we suggest that governments seeking to encourage university invention commercialization and entrepreneurship should experiment with an inventor ownership system.
8. title: complements or substitutes? the role of universities and local context in supporting the creation of academic spin-offs
authors: riccardo fini, rosa grimaldi, simone santoni, maurizio sobrero
abstract: in this paper, we analyze the extent to which university-level support mechanisms (ulsms) and local-context support mechanisms (lcsms) complement or substitute for each other in fostering the creation of academic spin-offs. using a sample of 404 companies spun off from the 64 italian science, technology, engineering, and mathematics universities (stem universities) over the 2000�2007 period, we show that the ulsms� marginal effect on universities� spin-off productivity may be positive or negative depending on the contribution offered by different lcsms. specifically, in any given region, ulsms complement the legislative support offered to high-tech entrepreneurship whereas they have a substitution effect with regard to the amount of regional social capital, regional financial development, the presence of a regional business incubator, regional public r&d expenses as well as the level of innovative performance in the region. results support the idea that regional settings� idiosyncrasies should be considered for universities to develop effective spin-off support policies. this paper contributes to the debate on the evaluation of economic policies supporting entrepreneurship.
9. title: the effectiveness of university knowledge spillovers: performance differences between university spinoffs and corporate spinoffs
authors: karl wennberg, johan wiklund, mike wright
abstract: while much prior research has focused upon how the technology transfer offices (ttos) and other contextual characteristics shape the level of university spinoffs (uso), there is little research on entrepreneurial potential among individual academics, and to the best of our knowledge, no comparative studies with other types of spinoffs exist to date. in this paper we focus on an important but neglected aspect of knowledge transfer from academic research involving the indirect flow to entrepreneurship by individuals with a university education background who become involved in new venture creation by means of corporate spinoffs (cso) after gaining industrial experience, rather than leaving university employment to found a new venture as an academic spinoff. we argue that the commercial knowledge gained by industry experience is potentially more valuable for entrepreneurial performance compared to the academic knowledge gained by additional research experience at a university. this leads us to posit that the average performance of csos will be higher than comparable usos, but the gains from founder�s prior experiences will be relatively higher among usos whose founders lack the corporate context. we investigate these propositions in a comparative study tracking the complete population of usos and csos among the swedish knowledge-intensive sectors between 1994 and 2002.
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