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volume 51, issue 9, november 2022
1. title: uncommon methods and metrics for local entrepreneurial ecosystems
authors: maryann feldman, lee fleming, sohvi heaton, sameeksha desai, david teece
abstract: scholars are always searching for better data, new models and novel theories. this special issue presents new empirical approaches for studying local entrepreneurial ecosystems. our objective is to provide insights into the state of the art of the new methodologies and uncommon data to study the dynamics and functioning of local entrepreneurial ecosystems. �uncommon data� refers to curated data from digital sources, with bespoke indicators derived from social media and interpretations derived from observation. the papers propose new methods and measures and draw upon a wide variety of empirical evidence, from large sample analyses of archival data to detailed qualitative investigations. the authors outline the need for multidisciplinary approaches and dynamic research designs that incorporate firm-level dynamics as a key dimension of entrepreneurial ecosystems. taken together, the papers provide important insights into the major issues facing policymakers and researchers of entrepreneurship.
2. title: a framework and databases for measuring entrepreneurial ecosystems
authors: evan e. johnson, iman hemmatian, lauren lanahan, amol m. joshi
abstract: scholarly literature on the concept of entrepreneurial ecosystems has increased sharply over the past five years. the surge in interest has also heightened the demand for robust empirical measures that capture the complexity of dynamic relationships among ecosystem constituents. we offer a framework for measurement that places collaborative relationships among entrepreneurs, firms, government agencies, and research institutions at the center of the ecosystem concept. we further emphasize the four roles of the federal government as a catalyst, coordinator, certifier, and customer in shaping these relationships. despite the central importance of these firm-government interactions, there is surprisingly little research on suitable methodologies and appropriate data for systematically and reliably incorporating them into measures of ecosystem health. our study aims to address this gap in the literature by first developing a conceptual framework for measuring entrepreneurial ecosystems and then describing an array of accompanying databases that provide rich and detailed information on firms and their relationships with government organizations, accelerators, and research institutions. a major advantage of our approach is that all the underlying databases are drawn from non-confidential, publicly available sources that are transparently disclosed and regularly updated. this greatly expands the potential community of scholars, managers, and policymakers that may independently use these databases to test theories, make decisions, and formulate policies related to innovation and entrepreneurship.
3. title: reprint of �the startup cartography project: measuring and mapping entrepreneurial ecosystems�
authors: rj andrews, catherine fazio, jorge guzman, yupeng liu, scott stern
abstract: this paper presents the startup cartography project (scp), which offers a new set of entrepreneurial ecosystem statistics for the united states from 1988 to 2016. the scp combines state-level business registration records with a predictive analytics approach to estimate the probability of �extreme� growth (ipo or high-value acquisition) at or near the time of founding for the population of newly-registered firms. the results highlight the ability of predictive analytics to identify high-potential start-ups at founding (using a variety of different approaches and measures). the scp then leverages estimates of entrepreneurial quality to develop four entrepreneurial ecosystem statistics, including the rate of start-up formation, average entrepreneurial quality, the quality-adjusted quantity of entrepreneurship, and the entrepreneurial ecosystem performance associated with a given start-up �cohort.� these statistics offer sharp insight into patterns of regional entrepreneurship, the correlation of quality (but not quantity) with subsequent regional economic growth and the evolution of entrepreneurial ecosystems over time. the scp includes both a public-access dataset at the state, msa, county, and zip code level, as well as an interactive map, the u.s. startup map, that allows academic and policy users to assess entrepreneurial ecosystems at an arbitrary level of granularity (from the level of states down to individual street addresses). the scp and accompanying datasets may be found at: https://www.startupcartography.com/.
4. title: a new tool for policymakers: mapping cultural possibilities in an emerging ai entrepreneurial ecosystem
authors: timothy r. hannigan, anthony r. briggs, rodrigo valadao, marc-david l. seidel, p. devereaux jennings
abstract: ecosystems are typically evaluated and understood using standard visible material metrics, such as new products, patents, startups, vc funding, jobs, and successful exits. yet emerging entrepreneurial ecosystems (eees) provide many possibilities for members not signaled by such visible markers. consequently, policymakers may have a difficult time making informed decisions about incentives and regulations to foster economic growth through ecosystem emergence. to address this methods and measurement issue, we conceptualize emerging systems using both cultural and material approaches to develop a comparative typology and apply it to an emerging regional ecosystem growing around artificial intelligence (ai). we render cultural and material maps using topic modeling of twitter feeds versus well-placed others, identify strategies in each, and discuss relevant policies for enhancing eees to realize various economic opportunities. this method adds to policy analytics and suggests policies for building cultural infrastructure in eees.
5. title: regional crowdfunding and high tech entrepreneurship
authors: sandy yu, lee fleming
abstract: despite extensive though mostly independent literatures on crowdfunding and regional entrepreneurship, there exists little work that examines how crowdfunding influences the rate and type of new venture formation in a region, what types of regions are more likely to experience crowdfunding activity, and what types of regions are more likely to experience additional firm starts following crowdfunding activity. we argue that crowdfunding increases high tech and high growth regional firm starts by increasing crucial early-stage funding, providing the opportunity to signal success and legitimacy, facilitating access to entrepreneurial human capital, supporting inexperienced entrepreneurs with education and advice, and providing inexpensive market feedback. instrumental variable regressions illustrate how kickstarter campaigns precede an increase in high technology and growth in crunchbase listings and a weak decrease in more conventional and local business registrations. while more per capita crowdfunding occurs in large cities relative to smaller cities, college towns, and poor regions with weak human capital, the impact per campaign appears greater in the poorer regions.
6. title: entrepreneurial opportunity and related specialization in economic ecosystems
authors: philip auerswald, lokesh dani
abstract: entrepreneurial ecosystems are most often defined as locally bounded networks of institutions and individuals that help entrepreneurs to identify and exploit market opportunities. however, a prerequisite of the ability to exploit an entrepreneurial opportunity is the existence of the opportunity to begin with. in this paper, we propose an approach to representing how entrepreneurial opportunities are embedded in a regional economy. the central methodological contribution of our paper is to introduce the concept of related specialization, which we define as the concentration of high interdependencies between specialized industries within a metropolitan region, relative to the national level of concentration. we find that related specialization is positively correlated with entrepreneurial outcomes across u.s. metropolitan areas. we use related specialization to make a first attempt at representing the trophic structure of an economic ecosystem. in a biological ecosystem, the trophic structure refers to energy-transfer relationships between different species. as introduced in this paper, we propose the analogy that, in an economic ecosystem, the trophic structure may be mapped in terms of the supply-chain relationships between industries within a region. we argue that these analytic tools can help policymakers more readily understand the opportunities that are imminently available to entrepreneurs in their local environments.
7. title: reprint of: capturing conversations in entrepreneurial ecosystems
authors: augusto rocha, ross brown, suzanne mawson
abstract: this paper examines a novel and innovative methodological approach and dataset for measuring the complex relational dynamics underpinning entrepreneurial ecosystems (ees). existing measurement techniques have largely failed to yield sufficiently nuanced data or insights to inform robust policy recommendations within this research field. to rectify this situation, this paper sets out a novel approach to assessing the relational connectivity within ees by capturing entrepreneurial "conversations". drawing on real-time data extracted from an event-based social media platform, in combination with social network analysis and qualitative interview data, we provide an in-depth assessment of the relational connections within the city of edinburgh at three analytical levels. overall, the paper demonstrates that the analysis of conversations and conversational spaces is an important mechanism for exploring and mapping the relational connectivity within ees. as well as producing novel empirical insights, this approach provides policy makers with vital strategic policy intelligence to help better inform public policy frameworks and associated interventions.
8. title: the formal institutional context of informal entrepreneurship: a cross-national, configurational-based perspective
authors: joshua k. ault, andrew spicer
abstract: while previous comparative research has identified the formal institutional conditions that differentiate countries on their degree of informal entrepreneurship, this paper examines the characteristics that shape cross-national diversity in its type. based on a series of fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analyses (fs/qca) of 138 country cases, we find evidence of causal heterogeneity in the configuration of institutional conditions associated with entrepreneurial outcomes that are informal and growth-oriented and those that are informal and subsistence-oriented. given our results, we propose that the formal institutional-based conditions that differentiate between types of informal sectors are best identified by the conjoint mixture of strength and weakness of state capabilities across multiple domains, rather than by uniform weakness, or voids, along all state functions. in our discussion, we explore the implication of our configurational-based findings for the comparative analysis of national systems of informal entrepreneurship and for the tailoring of policies to account for the multiple institutional-based pathways by which entrepreneurs come to enter into the informal economy.
9. title: local entrepreneurial ecosystems as configural narratives: a new way of seeing and evaluating antecedents and outcomes
authors: pablo mu�oz, ewald kibler, vesna mandakovic, jos� ernesto amor�s
abstract: this paper develops and applies a new evaluative approach to local entrepreneuriale cosystems, as configural narratives. we examine how configurations of local entrepreneurial ecosystem attributes, as evaluated by local experts, support or hinder the emergence of new and innovative firms. drawing on sociology of place, we present a novel configurational comparative analysis of local experts' evaluation of their ecosystems in chile. our proposed approach to entrepreneurial ecosystems helps us uncover two counterintuitive findings and so elaborateon interferences that have not yet been addressed through conventional concepts, methods and data. first, we reveal three distinct ecosystem types explaining different local levels of new firm activity: active self-propelled, indulged and passive self-absorbed. the internal composition of these types change when only innovative and high growth firms are taken into consideration. second, we show why, when seen as configural narratives, ecosystem attributes that have been assumed necessary play only a peripheral role. our study demonstrates a split picture against seemingly similar outcomes and homogenous local contexts, contributing to the advancement of entrepreneurial ecosystem theory, observation and assessment.
10. title: unpacking the process of resource allocation within an entrepreneurial ecosystem
authors: xianwei shi, yongjiang shi
abstract: while entrepreneurial ecosystems (ees) are often regarded as spatially bounded resource allocation systems that allocate and mobilise resources for new venture creation, less is known on the underlying process of resource allocation that sustains the development and prosperity of entrepreneurial ecosystems. following an inductive approach, we conducted a qualitative study on shenzhen's entrepreneurial ecosystem. our findings show that the process of resource allocation in an entrepreneurial ecosystem unfolds in four interconnected themes - resource endowments, resource use, resource dynamics and enabling conditions of resource dynamics. based on these dimensions, we offer an integrated process model revealing how an entrepreneurial ecosystem mobilises and allocates resources over time. complementing the �resource-provision� account in extant literature that illuminates the optimal �recipes� of ecosystem resources as sources of competitiveness, we offer a �resource-dynamic� account, which addresses how effective resource allocation, mobilisation and circulation within and outside of the ecosystems may be alternative sources of sustained growth for entrepreneurial ecosystems. we also contribute to the regional entrepreneurship literature by shedding light on the feedback impacts of new venture creation activities on regional resources. our findings offer implications for governments and entrepreneurs in guiding policy initiatives towards, and measuring the long-term health of, regional entrepreneurial ecosystems.
11. title: open creative labs as functional infrastructure for entrepreneurial ecosystems: using sequence analysis to explore tempo-spatial trajectories of startups in berlin
authors: andreas kuebart
abstract: by analyzing the tempo-spatial trajectories of startups, this paper proposes a new method to benchmark functions in entrepreneurial ecosystems based on longitudinal data. to demonstrate this novel method, a regional case study of the ecosystem infrastructure in berlin is considered, for which tempo-spatial trajectories of startups are analyzed with quantitative sequence methods. it is explored empirically how open creative labs such as co-working spaces or seed accelerators supply core functions within entrepreneurial ecosystems based on the aspects of regional integration and trans-local connection. open creative labs do not only provide important resources for startups and entrepreneurs but also have systemic functions within entrepreneurial ecosystems. namely, they provide conditions under which critical links within regional entrepreneurial ecosystems can be formed and they facilitate inter-ecosystem ties between regions.
12. title: measure twice, cut once: entrepreneurial ecosystem metrics
authors: jip leendertse, mirella schrijvers, erik stam
abstract: despite the popularity of the entrepreneurial ecosystem approach in science and policy, there is a scarcity of credible, accurate and comparable metrics of entrepreneurial ecosystems. this is a severe shortcoming for both scientific progress and successful policy. in this paper, we bridge the entrepreneurial ecosystem metrics gap. entrepreneurial ecosystems consist of the actors and factors that enable entrepreneurship. we use the entrepreneurial ecosystem approach to quantify and qualify entrepreneurial economies. we operationalize the elements and outputs of entrepreneurial ecosystems for 273 european regions. the ecosystem elements show strong and positive correlations with each other, confirming the systemic nature of entrepreneurial economies and the need for a complex systems perspective. our analyses show that physical infrastructure, finance, formal institutions, and talent take a central position in the interdependence web, providing a first indication of these elements as fundamental conditions of entrepreneurial ecosystems. the measures of the elements are used to calculate an index that approximates the quality of entrepreneurial ecosystems. this index is robust and performs well in regressions to predict entrepreneurial output, which we measure with novel data on productive entrepreneurship. the entrepreneurial ecosystem approach and the metrics we present provide a lens for public policy to better diagnose, understand and improve entrepreneurial economies.
13. title: a composite indicator analysis for optimizing entrepreneurial ecosystems
authors: esteban lafuente, zolt�n j. �cs, l�szl� szerb
abstract: we employ the �benefit of the doubt� approach rooted in non-parametric techniques to evaluate the entrepreneurial ecosystem of 71 countries for the period 2016. by scrutinizing the relative efficiency of countries� entrepreneurial ecosystems, the proposed analysis of composite indicators allows the computation of endogenous (country-specific) weights that can be used for developing more informed policy making. the results show that countries prioritize different aspects of their national system of entrepreneurship which confirms that, contrary to homogeneous prescription, tailor-made policy is necessary if the objective is to optimize the resources deployed to enhance the countries� entrepreneurial ecosystem. the findings of the empirical application reveal significant improvements in the quality of the entrepreneurial ecosystem can be realized by targeting the policy priorities of the local entrepreneurship system identified by the �benefit of the doubt� weights. by analyzing the variation in economic and entrepreneurship outcomes over the seven-year period centered on the study year (period 2013�2019), we found a significant positive correlation between quality improvements in the entrepreneurial ecosystem and venture capital investments.
14. title: varieties of entrepreneurial ecosystems: a comparative study of tokyo and bangalore
authors: agata kapturkiewicz
abstract: this paper, through a longitudinal qualitative study of comparable but different entrepreneurial ecosystems (ees) in tokyo and bangalore, contributes to the understanding of how local ees can be compared and measured in a way that pays attention to context and time. in contrast to many existing approaches to measuring ees, this study follows a bottom-up approach anchored in organisation theory to uncover potentially systematic ee differences (pointing to ee types) and � based on those � propose contextualised ee measurement dimensions in an inductive way. specifically, the paper conceptualises ees as organisational fields, and introduces and traces a unit of analysis comprised of institutional work and practice performed by ee stakeholders (entrepreneurs, investors, various supporters) on elements related to institutional infrastructure of their ees (e.g. financial and labour resources, support infrastructure, markets). this analysis illuminates which ee elements are particularly important in a given location and time as evidenced by the stakeholders� actions.
the findings reveal similarity in elements related to ees� institutional infrastructure that have been the objects of action in both locations. at the same time, there are patterns of similarities and differences in substance and sequence of the actions. for instance, institutional work and practice regarding support infrastructure consisted of similar specific actions and occurred in similar sequence over time in both tokyo and bangalore, in contrast to the actions related to markets. further, uncovering the existence of disputes regarding some instances of actions performed with regards to ees� institutional infrastructure, allows identifying a set of interacting dimensions (underlying ees� institutional infrastructure) that drive similarities and differences in ees� evolution trajectories in tokyo and bangalore by moderating stakeholders� actions: transnational connectedness, domestic old economy factors, perceived local ee needs, and ee benchmarks. this set of dimensions and their interactions is conceptualised as beginnings of a novel framework for comparing sub-national ees � varieties of entrepreneurial ecosystems � which is anchored in organisation theory but sensitised by insights from established comparative frameworks like varieties of capitalism. the cases examined in this paper allow to specify two ee types: more domestically-oriented ee (like tokyo) and more transnationally-oriented ee (like bangalore), both sharing the characteristic of developing and strengthening over time. based on the varieties of entrepreneurial ecosystems, the paper proposes contextualised ee measurement dimensions as an alternative and complementary way to the existing approaches to measuring ees.
overall, this paper contributes to ee studies (including the implications for policy and practice regarding how to assess and measure ees), as well as to organisation theory, to the underdeveloped issue of how to compare across organisational fields using the institutional infrastructure concept.
15. title: does light touch cluster policy work? evaluating the tech city programme
authors: max nathan
abstract: cluster policies are popular with policymakers, but we know surprisingly little about their effectiveness. this paper evaluates the causal impact of a flagship uk technology cluster programme that uses �light touch�, market-orientated interventions. i build a simple framework and identify effects using synthetic controls plus placebo tests to handle programme endogeneity concerns. i implement this design on rich workplace-level microdata from the business structure database, alongside a range of other administrative sources. i explore mechanisms through further tests for timing, cross-space variation, scaling and churn. the policy grew and densified the cluster, but has much weaker, partial effects on tech firm performance. i also find most policy �effects� began before rollout, raising questions about the programme's added value. more careful policy design could make future interventions more effective.
16. title: reprint of: regional governments and opportunity entrepreneurship in underdeveloped institutional environments: an entrepreneurial ecosystem perspective
authors: yifan wei
abstract: the role of regional governments in fostering opportunity entrepreneurship has received increasing attention from both academics and practitioners. drawing on research on entrepreneurial ecosystem (ee), this study provides a more analytical and holistic account of the supportive role of regional governments in underdeveloped institutional environments and their interactions with other key elements in regional ees. i propose that in underdeveloped institutional environments, a regional government which is able to perform its core function of delivering public and social services is positively associated with the growth of opportunity entrepreneurship. this effect becomes stronger in regions with more market-based economies, higher education institutions (heis), an entrepreneurial culture, and social entrepreneurship. empirical results based on entrepreneurship data at the provincial level in china between 1993 and 2013 provide strong support for the hypotheses. this study contributes to the literature on ee by providing more systematic evidence from underdeveloped institutional environments, and has policy implications for promoting opportunity entrepreneurship.
17. title: a framework for assessing municipal high-growth high-technology entrepreneurship policy
authors: edward j. egan
abstract: this paper advances a framework for making rudimentary need, impact, and cost�benefit assessments of municipal high-growth high-tech entrepreneurship policy. the framework views ecosystem support organizations like accelerators, incubators, and hubs as components in a city�s venture pipeline. a component�s pipeline size, raise rate, and cost per raise measure its performance. in total, the framework consists of eight objective and reproducible measures based on quantities and qualities of venture capital investment and 16 definitions of related terms-of-the-art. these measures and definitions are illustrated in 26 real-world policy examples, which assess initiatives in houston and st. louis over the last 20 years. the examples reveal an enormous variation in welfare effects, and some policies appear welfare destroying. many non-profit organizations claim success (and win awards and acclaim) using non-standard measures despite performing at less than half benchmark levels. policy cartels, which control startup policy in many u.s. cities, also engage in non-market actions to protect their rents.
18. title: entrepreneurship and subjective vs objective institutional performance: a decade of us hospital data
authors: shelby renee meek, matthias a. tietz
abstract: regional entrepreneurial activity can importantly affect the performance of local public service institutions. yet, the literature explaining these relationships suffers from five methodological challenges: 1) inferred direction of influence; 2) unavailability of representative data; 3) blurring of objective and subjective performance; 4) a lack of longitudinal data; 5) and a lack of fine-grained regional data. this paper relies on a rich dataset from the ubiquitous institution of hospitals to explore these effects and overcome these challenges. we discriminate between objective and subjective institutional performance, suggesting that both performance categories deserve empirical attention, and may react differently to entrepreneurship. our empirical approach applies econometric, mixed-effects regression models to a novel longitudinal dataset representing the entire hospital population in over 3000 u.s. counties between 2006 and 2018 merged with two sources of entrepreneurial activity at the county level. interestingly, the results suggest divergent relationships: regional entrepreneurial activity positively affects objective institutional performance and also negatively affects subjective performance. further, an institution's research designation attenuates the effect on subjective performance. these findings suggest that institutional performance is an often-overlooked byproduct of regional entrepreneurial activity and offer significant theoretical and policy implications.
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